US media are bracing for the White House return of Donald Trump, who previously helped to boost news consumption but is now prompting outlets to protect themselves from retaliation — legal or otherwise — from the famously grudge-bearing Republican. 

News organizations are girding themselves for a legal assault from Trump personally, as well as federal agencies that could theoretically frustrate broadcast licenses, comb through tax affairs and otherwise make life difficult for organizations that do not toe the line. 

New York University journalism professor Adam Penenberg told AFP that US news outlets, who normally compete in a fierce market, would have to cooperate to face down the threat posed by Trump.

"Trump's second term promises to be less reality show and more revenge tour, especially for the press," he said. "The question isn't whether he'll attack the media. He will. But can the media resist bending under the weight of those attacks?"

Early moves indicated that some US media were taking an initially conciliatory approach to Trump this term, with major broadcaster ABC opting to settle a defamation suit brought by the billionaire rather than fight it.

The US news media landscape is also changing in both form and ownership.

With an increasing number of US consumers getting their news from social media, Meta's billionaire owner Mark Zuckerberg announced the end of Facebook's US fact-checking program, which had previously drawn Trump's ire. 

The Washington Post, owned by tech mogul Jeff Bezos, declined to endorse a candidate for president, and in recent days spiked a cartoon critical of tycoons currying favor with the Republican. 

Defense of journalism

"The news media can prepare by reinforcing legal defenses, building coalitions between outlets, and fortifying cybersecurity to guard against hacks and leaks," said Penenberg.

The New York Times has repeatedly drawn rebukes from Trump over its persistent, attention-grabbing reporting of his political, personal, financial and legal problems.

It warned that smaller news organizations may be unable to stand up to legal threats from Trump.

"For smaller, less financially secure news organizations, the expense of defending themselves in lawsuits from Mr. Trump and his allies may be enough to encourage self-censorship," it said in a grave editorial.

For some, the crackdown has already begun. 

Trump has sued an Iowa daily, the Des Moines Register, and an Iowa opinion pollster, for a survey that predicted Kamala Harris would win the state that the Republican ultimately carried.

The Knight First Amendment Institute at Columbia University said the move would "intimidate" others.

A few days earlier, the Disney-owned ABC network agreed to pay $15 million in damages to settle Trump's defamation lawsuits against its news division and a journalist, a move perceived by some as a climb-down.

CBS is also considering settling lawsuits from Trump, who had accused its popular "60 Minutes" show of favoring Kamala Harris, the Wall Street Journal reported. CBS did not respond to a request for comment.

Comparison to oligarchs

Several organizations are reportedly reviewing their insurance coverage for libel or other litigation from hostile officials, while one non-profit is reviewing its compliance with labor regulations. 

Other media are working to protect sources in the event of whistleblower investigations.

Penenberg, a former senior editor, stressed that while newsrooms should prepare for lawsuits, regulatory harassment and pressure campaigns, many US presidents have governed with deep hostility to the media.

Former president Richard Nixon, he said, "turned paranoia into an art form."

Trump has long derided the media, calling it "fake news" at every opportunity, while his nominee for FBI chief has said he would "come after the people in the media who lied about American citizens."

Journalism professor Mark Feldstein compared efforts by some outlets and big tech to appease the Trump administration ahead of the inauguration to what "Russian oligarchs do with President Vladimir Putin."

"In one sense, it is understandable because Donald Trump has made clear how vindictive he will be toward those who oppose him," said Feldstein, who teaches at the University of Maryland.

"But the public depends on a free press to keep government officials honest."